Why Do We Fear the Hag? On Villainy, Misogyny, Ageism, Ableism, and Racism.
True self-acceptance and embracing differences is radical (but shouldn’t be).
The hag is a well-known character in folklore and mythology, often depicted as a wizened old woman, sometimes with a disability or limb difference, such as claw-like hands or a hunched back. Such depictions are usually not complimentary, and instead portray these women as malevolent characters who, at best, shun society and live reclusively and, at worst, actively seek to cause harm to others.
On the surface, it’s obvious that such depictions are entrenched in misogyny, ableism, ageism, and racism, but this discrimination is not limited to fictional stories; it occurs in real life, and often with devastating results.
The term hag is directed at women as an insult, but the fear of this label is deep-rooted, and women’s desire to avoid this characterisation at significant cost is not shallow; it triggers an inherent fear that stems from a historical and real danger that many people (mostly women) faced if they refused to conform.
Male witches are of small concern,” as one author of the Malleus confirmed. Its authors feel that “if the evil of women did not in fact exist - not to mention their acts of sorcery - the world would remain unburdened of countless dangers.”
Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial.
The Hag is Synonymous with the Witch
The witch trials took place in Europe and the American colonies during the early modern period (15th to 17th centuries). At this time, European Christians regarded witches as Satanists, and those accused of witchcraft were believed to be in league with the Devil.[1]
Anyone could be accused of being a witch. However, most accusations were aimed at women, especially older women. While figures do vary amongst historians, it is estimated that between 30,000 and 60,000 people (75-80% of which were women) were executed as witches during the early modern period.2 It should be noted though that this figure doesn’t take into account those who were tortured, ostracised, and abused, but who ultimately survived.
Contrary to popular belief, the women accused of witchcraft were not usually midwives or healers, but they were independent and outspoken women. Without turning this into too much of a history lesson, it’s clear that misogyny played a significant role in the persecution of those accused of being witches. Torture and shaming practices were already common for outspoken women between the 16th and 19th centuries, with the use of devices such as the scold’s bridle being utilised even on women who were not accused of witchcraft.[3]
The impacts of such violent misogyny cannot be understated, and they have lasting social repercussions in modern society, along with the inherited fear and trauma that women still carry epigenetically.[4] The witch trials impacted all women, and they still do.
“all women, even those who were never accused, felt the effects of the witch-hunts. The public staging of the tortures, a powerful source of terror and collective discipline, induced all women to be discreet, docile and submissive—not to make any waves.”
Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial.
Ageing Women
One of the main reasons that women were targeted as witches was due to their courage to age unapologetically. Women who age unapologetically nowadays face criticism and scrutiny too.
There is a reason why so many ‘anti-aging’ creams and other such products exist, and this is not due to women simply being vain, but because of the outright discrimination and derision they face if they simply embrace the visible signs of aging.
Some regulatory bodies, like the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in the UK, have banned the term ‘anti-aging’ to avoid misleading consumers, as there really is no such thing. The use of this term also perpetuates the idea that aging is something that needs to be tackled, when it is a perfectly normal aspect of life.[5]
As women age, they are increasingly devalued within society. Older women face discrimination that older men do not.
Women already experience many barriers to career progression throughout their lives, and these are exacerbated as we age. Older men are viewed as experienced, yet women face stereotypes that falsely suggest their age reduces their competence.[6]
A clear gender pay gap still exists, women still fulfil more part-time roles as opposed to full-time roles, and there are still expectations on women to be the main caregiver within families, whether this is for children or elderly relatives.
As outlined in the RSPH report on "How Attitudes to Aging Affect Our Health and Wellbeing", ageism is the most commonly experienced form of prejudice and discrimination, both in the UK and across Europe. Other forms of discrimination, such as racism and sexism, are rightly regarded as unacceptable, yet ageist assumptions and attitudes often go unchallenged. Negative stereotypes of older people as lonely, vulnerable, in poor mental and physical health, and as being an economic burden are sadly all too familiar, though these assumptions should not be applied as a blanket sentiment.[7]
For women, such discrimination is harmful in the present day, with one of the largest groups targeted by serial murderers being women over 60.8 But it is also historically rooted in trauma and violence.
In a time before pensions and government-supported care existed, older people in society had to rely on their community for help and support, and this was essential for survival. However, to some, this was seen as a burden and resulted in some older women being shunned and ostracised. If the women dared to speak out about this injustice, or if some misfortune befell those who shunned them, they would be accused of being a witch and likely tortured or killed as a result.
“If the witch-hunts particularly targeted older women, it is likely because they displayed an unbearable degree of confidence. Confronted by their neighbors, by priests or pastors, even before judges and torturers, these women talked back”
Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial.
‘Ugliness’ and the Beauty Myth
In mass media, morally good characters are portrayed as young, slim and beautiful, while villains are usually portrayed as old, fat and ugly.
Oh I beg your pardon! But I’ve never heard of a beautiful witch before.
Only bad witches are ugly.
The Wizard of Oz (MGM, 1939)
Women in general are highly scrutinised for their appearance. Many cosmetic companies market products by highlighting normal attributes of the human body and by trying to convince women that these things are problems that need to be fixed by the latest cream, serum, diet or supplement. And women are paying more to try and maintain their appearance, based on this marketing:
- Women spend a considerable amount on skincare products and treatments, with averages ranging from £154 to £337 annually, according to Cosmetic Surgery Solicitors [9]
- The average UK adult spends over £20,000 on weight loss tactics over their lifetime, with many turning to supplements and fad diets, according to Benenden Health.[10]
This ideal that is sold to women is rooted in the Western beauty standard of a young, thin, white, able-bodied physical ideal. As Jessica Defino describes it in her Teen Vogue article How White Supremacy and Capitalism Influence Beauty Standards: “Western beauty standards are the products of a capitalist, colonialist, patriarchal, white supremacist society, contrived to keep us consuming and consumed.”[11]
Women of colour may inherently struggle to meet this standard (given the racism that underpins it) but may still strive to achieve Western beauty standards due to the social pressure (and sometimes internalised racism/Eurocentric ideals and subsequent bodily dissatisfaction) to conform. This can include hair straightening, skin lightening, and even cosmetic surgery to achieve features associated with whiteness.
This is not simply women making a choice about their appearance or self-care. There is a legacy of abuse and criticism of women of colour, and a misrepresentation of their natural features, such as their hair, as appearing ‘unruly’.
People of colour (especially women) have been directly discriminated against for their natural hair textures, with some schools and workplaces implementing policies that disproportionately target afro-textured hair, ranging from outright bans on certain hairstyles, to requiring specific styles that are in line with Eurocentric conformity.[12]
Thankfully there are growing movements of women embracing their natural features and cultural heritage, challenging these imposed Eurocentric standards, redefining and diversifying beauty, and encouraging body positivity. Companies and schools have (for the most part) changed such policies, though they should never have existed in the first place.
“Disheveled, disobedient or unruly hair is an alleged tell-tale sign of witches,” writes Judika Illes, an American writer on the esoteric. “Even if she tries to keep her hair under control, a witch’s hair will spring out from beneath a headscarf or refuse to remain in a braid.”
Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial.
Some women, such as those with disabilities, also can’t ever meet this false idyll of beauty, no matter how much money they spend, how many ‘skincare’ products they buy, how much time they spend in the gym, or how many calories they cut from their diet.
And let’s face it, the goalposts constantly change for those who do invest significant money and pain in trying to alter their appearance, which is usually short-lived when done through cosmetic means.
Women who are consistently hungry in their striving to meet this beauty standard are also kept compliant. When we starve or fail to adequately nourish our bodies, this impacts our brains, our ability to concentrate, and our ability to fight misogyny. We literally have less energy and reduced cognitive function, which makes us more docile.[13]
“A culture fixated on female thinness is not an obsession about female beauty, but an obsession about female obedience. Dieting is the most potent political sedative in women’s history; a quietly mad population is a tractable one.”
Naomi Wolf, The Beauty Myth.
Aging women can no longer conform to this idealised beauty standard, no matter what they do. Women who are not able-bodied are forced into a position where they are othered, as they can’t conform to the ideal. And again, as women age, infirmities and illnesses are more prevalent.
Othering and the Fear of Disability or Mental Illness
With ableism in particular, there is a long and fraught history of ‘othering’, with people being institutionalised, tortured, and sometimes killed for a disability or difference (whether hidden or visible).
While it might sound like something from a book about fairytales, beliefs about witches and changelings were very real, and the dangers of these beliefs are still fairly recent in our history.
Changelings were believed to be beings (such as faeries or other supernatural entities) that were swapped for human children. They are a recurring figure in European folklore, but while they do have some roots in ancient Celtic and Germanic myths, they are mostly associated with societal anxieties about illness and disability.
Changelings were often associated with children who were sickly, disabled, or exhibited unusual behaviours which were not understood at the time. The belief in changelings could lead to the abuse or even death of children believed to be substitutes of the real human children, but this belief (and the resultant danger) also extended to women.
A relatively well-known example is the story of Bridget Cleary, from 1895, who was murdered by her husband after being accused of being a changeling and a witch, when in fact she was simply an educated and independent woman.
In fact, most women who were accused of being changelings were generally more educated, successful and empowered. They didn’t always fall in line with their husbands, and those accused of being a changeling, or of witchcraft, were often just those who refused to conform to societal norms.14
The last person in Britain tried and executed for witchcraft was Janet Horne, and disability, illness, and limb difference also plays a part in her story.
In 1727 Janet’s neighbours accused her of being ‘devilish’. At the time, she was showing signs of what we would now recognise as senile dementia, but this was little understood in the 18th century. Her daughter, Aila, had limb differences with her hands and feet, and Janet was accused of turning her daughter into a pony, and that the Devil had made her lame by shodding her hands and feet.15
These real-life stories reiterate that fairytales and media depictions of such beliefs are not just fictional stories. They are foundations and fables that society is built upon. It is tempting to believe that these ideas of fairies, witches and changelings wouldn’t be believed nowadays, but they were believed, and the fallout from this leaves its mark in modern society with the stigma that is still prevalent.
“Fairy tales and fables are never only stories; they are the scaffolding by which we understand crucial things. Fairness, hierarchy, patterns of behavior; who deserves a happy ending and who doesn't.”
Amanda Leduc, Disfigured: On Fairytales, Disability, and Making Space
Throughout history mental illness and learning disabilities have also been misunderstood (and continue to be misrepresented in some modern depictions). Prior to the 19th century, people with such illnesses or disabilities (which are of course distinct from one another) were often thought to be suffering from demonic possession.
If they managed to avoid being accused of being a changeling or in league with the devil, they were usually still shunned by society, and either ended up destitute and homeless, or confined to an asylum.[16]
But there is a particular legacy of women being confined to asylums, and of being accused of mental illnesses linked to their anatomy, which emphasises how being accused of ‘madness’ was another way to control independent and outspoken women.
Women were regularly confined to asylums for conditions related to their reproductive health. Such conditions included “insanity of pregnancy/puerperal insanity” (known today as anxiety, depression, or psychosis during the perinatal period, such as post-partum depression) or “hysteria” (which was used to describe a wide range of symptoms, blamed on a ‘wandering uterus’).
These women faced confinement because of their gender, and usually because they were viewed as uncontrollable by their male relatives: they were often simply strong-willed and forthright, and punished for refusing to demure to the men in their lives.[17]
Women who were assertive and ambitious were literally told that they were ‘unnatural’, and therefore that they were ill. Women who were well-read were seen as demonstrating an ‘eccentricity of conduct’, and women who had minds of their own were labelled ‘morally insane’.[18]
The patriarchal beliefs that women should be fulfilled solely by being wives and mothers (in line with their supposed ‘natural’ compulsions) reinforced the inextricable link between mental health and reproduction that is still prevalent in medical bias to this day.
The Childless Woman and Biases in Healthcare
It is well-known and recognised that when it comes to healthcare, women are regularly overlooked, under-diagnosed, and mistreated. This ranges from simply not being listened to or believed about their symptoms, to being completely missed out of medical trials and research.
There is five times more research into erectile dysfunction that there is in premenstrual syndrome, even though erectile dysfunction supposedly only impacts 19% of men, and premenstrual syndrome affects 90% of women.19
Medical biases continue to impact women of colour more significantly too, with black women being five times more likely to die in childbirth,20 which is a staggering fact, especially when this is preventable provided women are given appropriate medical treatment and support.
All women are under-represented in clinical trials (in the past women’s bodies were deemed ‘too complex’ to be involved in trials given their ‘fluctuating hormones’),21 but as women age their pain is taken less seriously, and where symptoms may be deemed more serious in younger patients, they are often attributed to the menopause in female patients aged 45-60.[22]
This dismissal and under-diagnosing/mistreatment of women’s medical health further emphasises the biases that exist in that women are inherently objectified and viewed as serving one purpose: to reproduce. Once women reach an age where they are deemed as no longer useful from this perspective (or where younger patients are diagnosed with conditions that mean they have limited abilities to conceive) they are written off and disregarded, despite how they may be suffering as a result.
Women who are childfree by choice have also faced (and continue to face) significant discrimination for this choice, given that it is a clear refusal to conform with patriarchal and societal norms that seek to reinforce stereotypical gender roles.
During the witch trials, some women who were tried and killed as witches were women who were childless, and not always by choice. It is no coincidence, though, that the criminalization of contraception and abortion also occurred in the same period as the witch-hunts.[23]
Contraception and abortion rights continue to be debated regularly, but there are no laws that seek to govern and control men’s bodies in the way that they do women’s bodies; even these debates treat the female body as an object for reproductive ability, and they often fail to recognise the actual people who live inside these bodies and who deserve bodily autonomy.
“Women who refuse motherhood are also faced with the prejudice that they must therefore hate children, like the witches who dined out on small roasted bodies during sabbaths or cast fatal spells on their neighbor’s child. This is doubly exasperating. First, because it is far from true in most cases: it can even be a strong sympathy with children that makes you refrain from having your own, while others may choose to have them for deeply dubious reasons.”
Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial.
Outspoken and Independent Women
Last but by no means least is the outspoken and independent woman, aka the single woman, who faces ongoing scrutiny in modern society and who also faced significant harassment during the witch trails.
Women who refused to be subordinate and bound to a man, whether through marriage or ownership by a male relative, were denouncing the patriarchal and societal norms through their very existence.
“... a woman who is self-assured, who asserts her opinions, her desires and dislikes, is very swiftly written off as a harpy, a virago, by both her partner and her peers.”
Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial.
At the time of writing this article, there are claims of a male loneliness epidemic (a term that deserves an article all its own for the misuse of this label), yet women who have been on their own and potentially (but not necessarily) lonely have been ridiculed and punished for it throughout history.
The ‘crazy cat lady’ trope stems directly from the witch trails and is linked to the idea of witch’s familiars, which were often cats, toads and birds. It is a term that is meant to instil fear in women, and not just because of the inference that refusing to conform means that you would be lonely as you age:
- women who were labelled as ‘crazy’ were institutionalised, tortured, and murdered;
- women who were labelled as witches were institutionalised, tortured and murdered; and,
- women who were given these labels and yet somehow managed to survive were ostracised, ridiculed and actively harmed.
Embrace the hag
While it is true that women still face many hardships, including misogyny, discrimination, oppression, and ongoing objectification, we do live in a time where a large proportion of us have more freedom of choice.
This includes choice of partner, whether to marry or have a partner at all, whether to have children, whether to conform to beauty standards and advertising that is pushed on us every day, and how much education we wish to pursue (amongst other things).
Regardless of what choices women make, we will face scrutiny and unsolicited opinions from those who try to control us by telling us that we should be different, less independent, and more in line with the societal norms of what it means to be a ‘woman’. But this interpretation of what it means to be a woman is not consistent, and it should be down to individual women (and yes, that includes trans women) to determine for themselves.
For those of us who do have freedom of choice, we can choose how we want to live our lives, and we can come together to fight patriarchy together. And we can continue to fight for all women globally who deserve the same freedoms.
If you’d like to join us, you can do so by signing up as an ambassador here: https://hassl.uk/pages/ambassador-program (and don’t forget to join our book club!)
“The witch embodies woman free of all domination, all limitation; she is an ideal to aim for; she shows us the way.”
Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial.
References:
1 Encyclopedia Britannica (2025), witchcraft. https://www.britannica.com/topic/witchcraft
2 University of Edinburgh, The Survey of Scottish Witchcraft (2003). https://witches.hca.ed.ac.uk/faq/
3 Tastes of History, About History: the Scold’s Bridle (2024). https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/about-history-the-scold-s-bridle
4 BBC Future, Can the legacy of trauma be passed down the generations? Martha Enriques (2019). https://www.bbc.co.uk/future/article/20190326-what-is-epigenetics
5 Alyson Walsh for The Guardian, Is it time to ditch the term ‘anti-ageing’? (2017). https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2017/aug/17/is-it-time-to-ditch-the-term-anti-ageing
6 Institute for Employment Studies (IES), Fulfilling Work: What do workers value about work and why? Marvell R, Cox A, Centre for Aging Better (2017). https://www.employment-studies.co.uk/resource/fulfilling-work-what-do-older-workers-value-about-work-and-why
7 Royal Society for Public Health, That Age Old Question; How Attitudes to Aging Affect Our Health and Wellbeing.
https://www.rsph.org.uk/static/uploaded/a01e3aa7-9356-40bc-99c81b14dd904a41.pdf
8 Joe Harker for Lad Bible, Criminologist explains the main reason people in the UK kill and how we can reduce serial murder (2025). https://www.ladbible.com/news/crime/criminologist-main-reason-people-uk-kill-326379-20250205
9 Cosmetic Surgery Solicitors, Survey results: how much money do men and women spend on their appearance every year? (2019) https://www.cosmeticsurgerysolicitors.co.uk/about/survey-results-how-much-money-do-men-and-women-spend-their-appearance-every-year
10 Charlotte Walker for Benenden Health, Waist of money: UK adults spend £20,000 on weight loss tactics over a lifetime (2021) https://www.benenden.co.uk/newsroom/diet-and-nutrition/
11 Jessica Defino for Teen Vogue, How White Supremacy and Capitalism Influence Beauty Standards (2020). https://www.teenvogue.com/story/standard-issues-white-supremacy-capitalism-influence-beauty
12 Nkimbeng M, Malaika Rumala BB, Richardson CM, Stewart-Isaacs SE, Taylor JL, for Health Equity, National Library of Medicine, The Person Beneath the Hair: Hair Discrimination, Health, and Well-Being (2023). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10457631/
13 Daniel Hjalmarsson for National Eating Disorders Collaboration (NEDC), The Starved Brain - Can What We Eat Determine How We Think? https://nedc.com.au/eating-disorder-resources/find-resources/show/issue-59-i-the-starved-brain-can-what-we-eat-determine-how-we-think
14 Sarah Durn for Atlas Obscura, The Haunting True Story of Bridget Cleary’s “Changeling” Murder (2022). https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/bridget-cleary-changeling-murder-ireland
15 History Links, 18th Century. https://www.historylinks.org.uk/18th-century
16 Science Museum, A Victorian Mental Asylum (2018). https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/medicine/victorian-mental-asylum
17 Kiera Boyle for Historic UK, Hysterical Victorian Women. https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Hysterical-Victorian-Women/
18 Kate Moore for TIME Magazine, Declared Insane for Speaking Up: The Dark American History of Silencing Women Through Psychiatry (2021). https://time.com/6074783/psychiatry-history-women-mental-health/
19 Nicola Slawson for The Guardian, ‘Women have been woefully neglected’: does medical science have a gender problem? (2019). https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/dec/18/women-have-been-woefully-neglected-does-medical-science-have-a-gender-problem
20 Sowda Ali, Alvaro Alvarez, and Anisa Subedar for BBC News, Black women ‘five times more likely to die in childbirth’ (2019). https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/stories-49607727
21 Katherine A Liu and Natalie A Dipietro Mager for Pharmacy Practice, National Library of Medicine, Women’s involvement in clinical trials: historical perspective and future implications (2016). https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4800017/
22 Dr Katie Hunt for Socio-Legal Studies Association (SLSA), Misageyny: Equality Law and the Bias Against Older Women. https://slsablog.co.uk/blog/blog-posts/misageyny-equality-law-and-the-bias-against-older-women/#_edn11
23 Mona Chollet, In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial (2022).
Recommended Reading from the HASSL Book Club (to accompany this article):
- In Defense of Witches: The Legacy of the Witch Hunts and Why Women Are Still on Trial, by Mona Chollet.
- Disfigured: On Fairytales, Disability, and Making Space, by Amanda Leduc.
- The Beauty Myth, by Naomi Wolf.
- Women and Madness, by Phyllis Chesler.
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